Transferring earth science information to decision makers; problems and opportunities as experienced by the U.S. Geologi

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR · 81!3 United States Department of the Interior

Library of Congress catalog-card No. 79-600138

expressed his concern that the U.s. Geological Survey was not communicating earth science information to the land resource planners and decisionmakers of the Nation as effectively and widely as possible. Director McKelvey perceived a need for the Survey to enlarge its traditional style and format of communication, and established in 1974 a testing ground within the Survey, the Land Information and Analysis (LIA) Office, where experimental programs could be carried out to develop new methods of information transfer.

LIA programs that should be of particular interest to scientists and engineers concerned with effectively conveying earth science information to planners and decisionmakers. Among these are:

points, and is offered with the hope that the earth science community will build upon our experiences.

FOREWORD

In 1972, the Survey's ninth Director, V. E. McKelvey,

Several themes emerge from the experience of the diverse

• The earth scientist must be able to view a problem from the decisionmaker' s perspective to facilitate development of useful earth science information.
• Consultation and follow- up contact is necessary until the use by planners and decisionmakers of a particular kind of earth science information becomes a regular accepted practice.

The report that follows highlights these and other

J. R. Balsley / Chief, LIA Office

Conclusions------------------------------------------------------- 27 References cited-------------------------------------------------- 29

Urban area study projects of the ESA Program----------------- 17 RALI project for "Onshore Planning for Offshore Oil and Gas Development"----------------------------------- 22 USGS-State Land Use and Land Cover Mapping Project----------- 23 Pacific Northwest Land Resource Inventory

Idaho phosphate environmental impact statement--------------- 26

projects, 1970-78------------------------------------

tools, and techniques-------------------------------- 13

Page

Owing to increasing energy, environmental, and land use pressures, earth scientists must augment their efforts to make earth science information (ESI) more readily available and useful to the citizens of the United States. numbers of decisions are being made· in the counties and throughout the country relating directly to effective use of the Nation's land surface and subsurface. as well as assistance programs for more effective and commonly multiple use of the land and its resources, either encourage or require local land use planners and decisionmakers to take earth science information into account. and the citizens they serve.

The magnitude of the challenge to the earth science community will justify the attention of a large proportion of its members, whether employed as consultants, or by government, universities and colleges, or private industry. Indeed, the task is so great that it will require an appreciable increase in the size of this community over the years--first, to correct current deficiencies and, second, to provide continuing growth to meet increasing demands.

The interest in applying earth science information more effectively to land use planning problems is not new: of America held its first meeting on land use in May 1948. Again, positions for engineering geologists were established in both the city and county of Los Angeles in 1959. Each year increased attention and time is given to the subject by earth science information producers and land use planners alike.

BY THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Two major trends account for these pressures: (1) Increasing municipalities

(2) Federal, State, and local regulations,

They can do so only if ESI is transferred effectively to them

the Soil Conservation Society and no longer relate only to people that have suffered, or that live in anticipation of, earth-related catastrophes, such as earthquakes, landslides, and floods. legislation for parks, highways, wild and scenic areas, etc., inexorably reduces the average private-land acreage per U.S. citizen. new problems confront thousands of communities throughout the Nation. These include: disposal, loss of prime agricultural land, pollution of air and water, recovery (or preservation for future recovery) of construction materials and other mineral and fuel resources in urbanizing areas, more use of the subsurface for transportation and utility corridors as well as parking garages and working quarters, and multiple land and water uses where conflicting purposes and societal pressures dictate shared responsibilities of various interest groups.

as those reported herein, show that an appreciation at local government levels of the potentialapplications of earth science informationdepends on a large number of variables which differ from place to place. town and county, council of governments, and river basin commission will need assistance from soil scientists, geologists, hydrologists, engineers, biologists and/ or other earth scientists to meet its own land use problems. However, in each instance one ingredient is essential to success, namely, the establishment and maintenance of close, mutually beneficial working relationships among the cooperating groups--the scientists, the land use ·~planners and decisionmakers, and the citizens they serve.

between earth scientists and planners, Donald A. Woolfe, former Planning Director of the San Mateo County Planning Department in California, offered this advice to geologists: "it is imperative for you to develop a trusting, working relationship with someone who has the ability to sell your information to public officials. Join with other environmental professionals! Take a planner to lunch!" In this and other ways he was pointing out that the use of earth science information for planning and decisionmaking will not achieve its full potential until earth scientists and planners understand each other's needs, problems, pressures, and aspirations and can communicate these to each other in a common language.

planning officials, and the number of planners who have been geologists, is small. some universities to include a smattering of earth science courses in their planning curriculums, and although some State geological surveys have long been attempting to educate the citizenry in the importance of environmental geology, the earth science community as a whole has yet to realize that it has primary responsibility for ensuring adequate and proper use of earth science information by the public and its representatives.

throughout all phases of land use planning and decisionmaking. Key role What is new is that the needs are assuming nationwide proportions

Population continues to increase, and "set-aside"

Water supply and water quality, solid and liquid waste

Past and current activities in the information transfer area, such

In an editorial (Woolfe, 197 8) on the lack of meaningful interaction

The number of geologists working as, or in close association with,

Although 'energy and environmental pressures are encouraging

The earth scientist-citizen user community partnership must prevail players within the various "power structures" of the area involved must first be identified; joint assessments of perceived and real needs and of the nature and format of the products to best help satisfy those needs must then be made; and preparation and transfer of the information in ways that will ensure its most effective application by the lay user to the problem should follow. assessment, product preparation and packaging, and information transfer and use, there must be continual formal interaction and informal dialog between the producer and user communities if the needs of the latter are to be most effectively served.

This paper reports on the experiences of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientists in interfacing with members of the land use planning and decisionmaking community on a wide variety of projects of the type administered by the Land Information and Analysis (LIA) Office of the USGS. It addresses the following questions:

Examples provided herein are drawn from a large number of LIA projects. They comprise a small but reasonably representative sample of the activities of five USGS programs, (1) which are interdisciplinary with respect to the four existing USGS divisions (Conservation, Geologic, Topographic, and Water Resources) and (2) which administer projects that relate to and involve the user community mentioned above.

The material for this paper was obtained in part from analysis of a number of program evaluation reports (referenced herein) but to a greater extent from interviews with a large number of people personally involved in earth science information exchange. The heads of the five LIA programs and numerous LIA project leaders and staff members who interface between the earth scientists and the land use planners and decisionmakers have been particularly helpful. The author is particularly grateful to Carol Hurr and Jennifer Shawe for careful, critical editing of the manuscript. o

o Throughout the overlapping stages of need

Who are the new users of earth science information, and what characteristics and interests place them in a position to relate more closely to the earth science community?

What are the needs of these users for earth science information?

What specific forces generate pressure for increased application of earth science information to land use planning problems?

What are some of the difficulties faced by the earth science producer and the user communities in working together on these needs and problems?

Whatare some of the more successful methods, asdemonstrated on USGS projects~ of transferring earth science information to nontechnical users?

'ACKNOWLEDGMENTS welfare of the American people so far as it depends on the discovery, understanding, and effective use of data and information about the Earth and its physical resources. 187 9, the USGS has met the earth science information needs of a wide variety of us·ers, including:

The great majority of these users have had sufficient motivation and self-interest to seek out earth science information, as provided by the USGS and other producers, and to learn how to use it for their own particular purposes.

more closely at the products of the USGS. With the passage of the Clean Water Act of 1965, city managers, county commissioners, and members of sanitation district boards and river basin commissioners found they had to be more concerned with both water supplies and effluents in their own and neighboring jurisdictions. the Corps of Engineers, the Bureau of Reclamation, and other sources suddenly became important to these new "customers" who discovered the need for earth science information.

pressures were increasing the attractiveness of land surrounding the Nation's population centers. It. soon became evident--painfully so, in some cases--that land removed from agricultural and forest usage was not always geologically suitable for residential and commercial development. Landslides, shoreline erosion, fault zones, shrink-swell clays, subsidence phenomena, and eutrophication became terms all too familiar to developers and homeowners. courthouse as well as on Capitol Hill, agencies at all levels of government evaluated their own activities in anticipation of possible Federal land use legislation. Such legislation was, in fact, seriously considered by the Congress in the early seventies and debated as a national need or, alternatively, as a threat to local jurisdictional authority. Awareness spread to an ever larger group of responsible citizens that earth science information, heretofore considered important only in areas of geologic hazards, was also important for communities with less "catastrophic" but more pervasive and long-reaching land use problems. The realization grew The U.S. Geological Survey has lead agency responsibility for the

In the fifties and sixties, a new set of potential users began looking

In this same period, moqnting postwar population growth and development USGS ACTIVITY IN THE LAND USE PLANNING AREA

In the 100 years since ,it was founded in

Hikers, fishermen, prospectors, landowners, surveyors, the military, and a host of others relying on its topographic maps.

Natural science and engineering professionals depending on geologic maps, water data, and resource assessments to advance their own interests or those of their organizations.

State Survey and academic personnel sharing the challenges of scientific discovery to advance the state of knowledge of the Earth and the universe about it.

Maps and water data from the USGS,

With mounting talk of land use planning, in the county that the inventory, characterization, and classification of the land and the subsurface is elemental and essential to its effective use. Citizens, planners, and decisionmakers inthe cities, counties, States and regions, unwilling or unable (politically) to consider jurisdictionwide land use planning, reinstituted conservation district approaches and began to talk in terms of fragile, critical, and special interest areas.

reasons for making the American public more earth science conscious and for encouraging planners and decisionmakers in energy-producing regions to take harder looks at the land and its resources.

producers of earth science information. The interacting impacts of energy, environment, and land use have led to the creation of a huge new set of potential users, who are, for the most part, not knowledgeable about the existence or usefulness of the products or even of the need to investigate that usefulness. One of the top priorities for the earth scientists is to educate the American citizen and his representatives in local, State, and Federal Government to the importance and applicability of earth science information to land resource planning and decisionmaking.

the U.S. Geological Survey set up the Land Information and Analysis (LIA) Office and charged it with providing national leadership in this area. LIA has worked toward the accomplishment of this mission by pursuing four major goals:

attainment of these goals. earth scientists best help the American citizen use earth science information more effectively? In 197 4 the OPEC oil price increases added to the growing list of

The 1970's became a period of rapid transition to a new era for the

In 1975, in recognition of this need and challenge, the Director of

Five programs have been administered by LIA, all working toward the To create in the citizens and their representatives a greater awareness and understanding of the usefulness--indeed, the critical importance--of earth science information in meeting many of their needs.

To work with the divisions of the USGS in the preparation of technical earth science information in the formats and language most suitable for its effective use by intelligent laymen.

To assist the public and its representatives in making use of the information by providing and sponsoring educational, advisory, and review services.

To illustrate to the earth science community as a whole, by project examples and demonstrations, the difficulties, rewards, and challenges that earth scientists will face in furnishing such assistance.

Each seeks to answer the question: How can The Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA) Program constitutes an integrated USGS response to the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). the EIA Program is responsible is a compendium ofallavailable pertinent information (earth science, natural resource, socioeconomic, etc.), relative to an area of concern, set forth in a manner that clearly illustrates the most probable consequences of various actions upon the natural and human environment of that area. interested, highly motivated segment of the user community concerned with the region involved. is provided for in NEPA and is further directed by guidelines to each EIS study team in the EIA Program.

The Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Program administered by the USGS on behalf of the Department of the Interior, develops techniques to obtain and analyze remotely sensed data and promotes the use of these techniques in fulfilling the resource and environmental inventory and management responsibilities of the Department. plished in cooperation with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and other Federal agencies.

A large part of the EROS Program effort is carried out at the EROS Data Center (EDC) in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. EDC maintains an extensive archive of satellite imagery and aerial and space photographs of the Earth, processes and distributes photographic and digital products, and provides extensive user training and technical assistance in the use of remotely sensed data. particularly applications training, by representatives of foreign, Federal, State, regional, and local government agencies.

The Geography Program of LIA provides nationwide capability to assess the status and changing nature of land cover and land use. operative agreements with State agencies, regional and river basin commissions, and local government units, Geography personnel furnish data showing what is happening to the land~ the rate at which it is happening, and the implications for society. Current users include a Department of the Interior task force studying the Barrier Islands of the Atlantic and gulf coasts, theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service (formerly the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation), the Bureau of Land Management, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Soil Conservation Service, the Appalachian Regional Commission, the Ozarks Regional Commission, the Delaware River Basin Commission, the Pacific Regional Commission, San Mateo County in California, and many State and local agencies. The Geography Program, like EROS, faces supply and demand Each environmental impact statement (EIS) for which

Each statement is prepared for a keenly

Formal public participation in the EIS process

This objective is accom-

There is a high demand for all these services,

Through coproblems: rapidly increasing user demand throughout the Nation far exceeds the capabilities of the scientists and staff to advance and transfer the rapidly changing technology. Projects administered by both EROS and Geography address a wide spectrum of users, the majority of which are affiliated with agencies of Federal and State governments, and regional commissions. On the whole, these people, though not necessarily specialists with respect to the products and type of training LIA programs offer, are working in natural resource areas and are attempting to improve their own capa~ilities and the projects of the agencies they represent. Their interest is measured, in part, by their willingness to meet some of the program costs, using mechanisms ranging from cost-sharing arrangements in Geography's USGS-State cooperative land use and land cover mapping program, to payments of fees for courses and workshops at the EROS Data Center. specific products offered by these two LIA programs are increasingly essential to land resource planning and decisionmaking. (For example, see Natural Resource and Environment Task Force, Intergovernmental Science, Engineering, and Technology Advisory Panel (ISETAP), June 1978.)

in 197 2 by the Secretary of the Interior to provide the organizational framework to more effectively mobilize the Department's technological capacity and scientific competence for objective analysis of the alternatives in land use. of Government, RALI provides the knowledge base for efficient and safe land and resource development. tradeoffs between resource development and environmental protection concerns. The program's clientele is primarily Federal, State, and local land use planners but includes others that require earth science, biological, and socioeconomic data, methods, and technologies not available from any single Departmental bureau.

assess, and communicate the role of earth and natural science to the growing community of land resource planners and decisionmakers. factbooks compile, analyze, and synthesize the information this community needs in critical land use planning areas. formation in a manner tailored to fit the needs of the planners and the citizens they serve. diverse, uncertain of its needs, and largely uninformed as to what part earth science should play relative to socioeconomic, legal, political, and other aspects of land resource evaluation and decisionmaking.

multidisciplinary USGS projects aimed at providing earth science information for land resource decisionmaking. The program's objectives are threefold: (1) to interpret, demonstrate, and encourage the use of earth science Growing demand demonstrates that the technical training and

The Resource and Land Investigations (RALI) Program was established

The Earth Sciences Applications (ESA) Program directs and coordinates With appropriate collaboration by other agencies

In addition, the program evaluates the

demonstrates exceptional capability to explore,

Workshops transfer this in-

The user population addressed is large and information for land resource decisionmaking through specially designed projects and report products and through interaction with, and technical assistance to, users; (2) to stimulate, coordinate, and integrate multidisciplinary land resource studies in the USGS; and (3) to serve as the focal point within the USGS for multidisciplinary studies in support of the work of other Federal, State, and local agencies.

in selected urban-centered areas of theUnited States. These studies are conducted by personnel of the Geologic, Water Resources, and Topographic Divisions of the USGS and are supported by funds from the ESA Program. Results are diverse. importance and utility of earth science products for land use planning and decisionmaking in these urban centers. Detailed assessments of the use ·of earth science products by city, county, and regional planning agencies in the San Francisco Bay region have been made by Kockelman (197 5, 1976, 197 9). The ESA Program has also completed tunneling-feasibility studies for the central business districts of Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota, and Los Angeles, California. Also, as the focal point for multidisciplinary land-resource studies, ESA has been instrumental in developing guidelines and procedures to enable the USGS to carry out geologic-hazard warning responsibilities, as required by the Disaster Relief Act of 197 4.

projects, studies, and workshops administered by these five LIA programs in fiscal years 197 0-7 8. of all map and book reports prepared under the aegis of these programs totals 57 5. The following partial list of topics from theLIA bibliography demonstrates the variety and scope of program efforts and concerns.

prises a wide spectrum of users, ranging from members of Federal, State, and local government agencies to the citizens they serve; diversity is the rule rather than the exception. Furthermore~ the character and compo-To accomplish its objectives, theE SA Program has undertaken projects

Figure 1 shows the locations of some of the information transfer

Coal development Computerized information Construction conditions Earthquakes Energy resources Engineering geology Environmental impact statements

Erosion Faults Flood prone areas Hazards Hydrology Land use planning

The community addressed by LIA projects, studies, and workshops com-Robinson and Spieker (197 8) gave examples of the

For the period 197 4-7 8, a conservative count

USERS AND THEIR NEEDS Landslides Liquefaction Mineral resources Oil spill trajectory Outer Continental Shelf Overburden Runoff Slope Urban planning Vegetation Waste disposal Water quality Water supply sition of this user community is continuously changing. Particularly in the land use planning area, where important decisions are made at the local jurisdictional levels, changes in citizen participation and interest, in elected officials, and not infrequently in planning staff members not only increase liaison problems but constantly expose the earth science information to interpretation by new personnel who have not had the benefit of previous experience with the project. that earth science information be furnished in language and format easily comprehended by the intelligent layman. This concept appears simple enough; its application has proved to be more difficult. Although no one area in the information transfer field has received as much attention as this, this issue deserves more.

have little to do with, or say about, how and by whom the information is used. with the overall success of an ESI effort, are predetermined and well known to the information producers. The USGS-LIA project examples discussed in the next section extend to both extremes; indeed, the extremes may be represented within a single project. statement (FES), prepared by the Environmental Impact Analysis Program, is used by decisionmakers in the Nation's Capital as the basis for judgments required by NEPA. Strictly speaking, these decisionmakers Secretary of the Interior, and the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ)] are the users of the information provided in the statement. But there is also a diverse group, including citizens, private and nonprofit organizations, and governmental agencies, that reacts to and uses the draft environmental statement (DES), which is subject to critical comment. This group is "unselec ted," at least by E SI producers, although its participation is sought both formally through public hearings and informally through a variety of contacts made in the preparation for and production of the report.

has the greatest opportunity to determine their market. remotely sensed data available through the training courses at the EROS Data Center are of such significance to so many potential users that limits must be placed on the number to be accommodated.

tives from large and diverse user communities has proved to be different for each of the LIA program efforts. Experience has shown that earth scientists are unlikely to have specific knowledge of the pol! tics, administrative goals and procedures, and the numerous hidden forces that affect the operations and interests of many of the user communities; for this reason, alliance with an intermediary type of organization, respected by both producer and user communities, is often advisable.

Environment and Resources Planning Study, 1971), the high population density of the Bay area made identification of key representatives in the huge user community Governments, acting as intermediary, helped to alleviate the problem. Commonly, the earth scientists producing and disseminating information

Conversely, some key users, who may have a great deal to do

When information products are in considerable demand, the producer

The problem of effectively identifying and involving key r~presenta

In the first of the Urban Area Studies (San Francisco Bay Region

particularly difficult.

This changing "mix" requires

A final environmental impact

The Association of Bay Area Geological Survey worked with the USGS to assure linkage with citizens, planners, and decisionmakers at the local government levels.

factors affect and determine an organization's capability to serve in this capacity. On a number of the Urban Area Study projects, the attempted use of regional groups as coordinating and communicating "mechanisms" to link producer and user communities was found to be ineffective. Failure can be attributed to such things as lack of strength (political, financial, authoritative, or otherwise), lack of apparent "rewards" from the project (in the sense of its improving the image of the coordinating entity, at least in the eyes of its own members), or lack of sufficient preliminary planning to assure adequate understanding and commitment on the part of the intermediary.

tists that the use of intermediaries, or transfer agents, relieves the information producers of responsibility for interfacing directly with the users, or even for putting their information into lay language. is also felt that requiring or encouraging potential planners to include e·arth science courses in their training absolves information producers of these same responsibilities. LIAexperience has indicated that although both the use of transfer agents and the education of planners in the earth sciences (as well as of earth scientists in the art, science, and politics of planning) are increasingly important components of the information transfer system, nothing replaces intensive producer-user interaction, and preparation and presentation of products in the simplest form possible.

scientists in relating to the new user community:

entists to identify and involve appropriate user communities and their leaders also have an important bearing on correctly assessing user needs for earth science information. In some areas~ needs are equally obvious to producers and users alike~ and the manner in which the needs can best be met may be very clearly defined. The RALI workshops, EROS Da.ta Center training application courses~ and environmental impact statements are in this category. These LIA projects are initiated because of product demand, generated in the first two examples by the activities of the scientists involved and in the last by NEPA legislation. For the Connecticut Valley Urban Area Project, the Connecticut

Certain problems are potential to any use of intermediaries; numerous

Unfortunately, there is some feeling in the community of earth scien-

There are three types of needs that must be served by the earth

The same considerations that determine the ability of earth sci-It

The need to make potential users aware of the availability, importance~ and utility of earth science information.

T~e need for the products themselves--the maps, reports, remotely sensed photographs and data~ etc.

The need to assist the user in the effective application of the information to his problems by providing appropriate educational~ advisory, and review services.

More commonly, user needs are not so well defined, and, because of lack of mutual understanding of each other's problems, both ESI producers and users may have perceptions of need that require considerable modification as the result of continuing dialog and mutual education. The Urban Area Studies projects, among others, were set up as demonstrations intended to determine, at least in part, (1) the ability of the earth scientists to respond to apparent needs of the user communities, and (2) the response of these communities to earth science information production and transfer efforts. Although some of the projects have accomplished more than others, all have successfully shown that earth science information is needed for good land use planning and that those members of land use planning and decisionmaking communities who have been made aware of the availability and utility of this information recognize this need and commonly advocate additional work in this area.

The amount of effort that can justifiably be devoted by the information producers to each of the three types of need varies in proportion to other factors over which the earth science producer community may have moderate, little, or no control. One such factor involves those "driving forces," or pressures, on the members of the user community which require or encourage them to devote time, effort, and other resources to the application of earth science information. Examples of various types of driving forces are given in table 1.

Members of the user community are most receptive to the use of earth science information when they are influenced by driving forces, such as peer pressure or legislative mandate. ·Thus, the success of any earth science information transfer project, including the effectiveness of producer-user interaction, is 'directly related to the amount of user commitment to the project as determined by such pressures. So it was that effective participation and conuni tment from State agencies in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, in the Pacific Northwest Land Resource Inventory DemonstrationProject, was secured as a result of thedirect involvement, interest, and support of the three State Governors in their roles as members of the Pacific Northwest Regional Commission. Elements of both "peer" and "system" driving-force pressures were in effect. In a RALI project involving workshops on Onshore Facility Siting~ the requirements imposed by the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) and the National Environmental Policy Act on State and local planners, the participation of the Governors' offices in selecting· the attendees, and the absence of fees, encouraged sincere and purposeful commitment by the user to the achievement of workshop objectives. In the Urban Area Studies Program, maximum producer-user interaction and consequent benefits to the users have accrued in those areas where the earth science information provides direct and useful input to help meet user needs generated by those driving forces resulting from State or Federal legislation. For example, passage of the Alquist-Priolo Seismic Safety Act in California has greatly increased the demand for fault maps and earthquake study reports produced as part of the San Francisco. Bay Region study. Similarly, sand and gravel maps produced in the Front Range Urban Corridor studies in Colorado and drainage area maps on the Connecticut Valley Urban Area Project are among the many products generated in anticipation of or in responsetoland use planning needs resulting from Federal or State legislation. Force

Peer or competition pressure.

"Reward" pressure-- Fairly to very effective if

In this connection, there is an increasing amount of Federal legislation which includes sections that implicitly encourage or explicitly require the application of earth science information. Spicer, Braud, and Bordelon (1977) pointed out:

TABLE !.--"Driving forces" that encourage use of new products,

"Today, well over 850 Federal programs make available grants, loans, guarantees, technical assistance, land, and equipment or authorize direct Federal action. tools, and techniques

Probably most effective of all is survival of office (project, staff, responsibility, etc.). Requires adoption of new techniques, products, etc.

Fairly effective. If it is the thing to do, market economics will provide the stimulus.

Often very effective. The need to impress people "up the line" in the system, or in other units of the system, is often important. Also, if the system requires or encourages the use of the products, the pressure is obvious. May be in anticipation of laws, rules, and regulations, or after the fact.

benefits are obvious: free products and services, Federal or State monies tied to performance re various laws (HUD 7 01, EPA 208, Mine Reclamation, Coastal Zone Management, etc.)

Many relate in some Bureaucratic systems may

Pressure must usually come

Unfortunately, many of Problems

allow archaic operations to survive long after they should be modernized or eliminated.

systems (local, State and Federal Government), an operation can survive without too much concern for this element.

from a high level if it is to be effective. Lack of money to implement laws may be major stumbling block.

these vehicles are deficient in spelling out specific requirements for effective use of earth science information. To this list the Surface Mining Reclamation Act of 1977 can be added as another example of legislation of particular significance to ESI producers and the land use planning and decisionmaking community.

in part by both Federal pressures and financial inducements, had begun to encourage more explicit land use planning and decisionmaking at State and local government levels.

State, and local level has not only increased but shows a growing tendency to regulate land use, as well as simply provide guidelines. The laws represent decisionmakers' interpretations of the concerns of their constituents for continued growth in an environment conducive to improved quality of life. rapidly increasing the need for earth science information for land use planners and decisionmakers.

variety of ways. Table3 indicates some of these variations from program to program with regard to a number of user-related parameters. Parameter 3, "Current product demand," provides an example. Impact Analysis Program, for example, demand for the the environmental impact statement is generated by the law that requires it. The ultimate users of an EIS are the administrative officials who must decide which of several courses of action is to be taken for the region, facility, or site under consideration. The public, including all groups and institutions, plays a dual role: first, as user of the information, and, second, as a participant in the preparation of the final EIS by virtue of reacting (in writing or at public hearings) to the draft EIS. Both the administrative officials and the public are interested in and concerned with the product. sound background knowledge of at least some of the subject matter and issues covered by the report and are highly motivated to seek out and understand all available information pertinent to their·concerns.

increasing, but for different reasons. Remotely sensed information proves more and more useful in activities that range from scientific research, through natural and human resource inventory, todetection and assessment of land use and land cover changes over time. The need for photographic manner to land development and use. Over 130 of these programs have a direct impact on land use.

" ••• four are relatively broad in perspective. They are Section 208 of the FWPCA [Federal Water Pollution Control Act]; Section 404 of the FWPCA; Sections 305, 306, and 308 of the CZMA; and Section 7 01 of the Housing and Urban Development Act."

Table 2 indicates the extent to which individual States, influenced

Since 1976, when these data were published, legislation at the Federal,

They constitute the principal driving force that is

LIA EXPERIENCE AT THE PRODUCER-USER INTERFACE

The five LIA programs relate to the users and their needs in a

A high proportion of these users have a reasonably

Demand forEROSand Geography products is equally strong and rapidly

[From Council of State Governments, 1976b]

c

TABLE 2.--State land use programs--Continued

c

imagery, digital data, and applications training is admitted by an ever larger number of users, to the point where program supply falls far short of user demand, even though users are willing to share the costs.

The product demand for the RALI and ESA studies is less clear cut. ESA concentrates onES! application, particularly to urban area problems. RALI is more problem-oriented (how do we manage this coastal zone?; how do we mitigate these impacts of coal production?, etc.) and, through the use of factbooks and workshops, assists the users in developing approaches to problem solution by applying all types of pertinent information, including the earth sciences. The user communities involved are large and diverse, and their knowledge about the applicability of ESI to problem solution ranges from good to poor. often be created by a variety of educational efforts designed to make the user aware that earth science information will indeed help in the solution of some of his problems. Because the entire Nation is in some way subject to land-resource-related impacts (sanitary landfills, water quality and quantity, mineral and fuel extraction and land reclamation, multiple land use, etc.), the potential user community for RALI- and ESA-type assistance is huge. However, product demand will grow only as this population is made aware of the value of the available information.

Difficulties encountered at the producer-user interface within these five LIA program areas, and the approaches that have proved successful in removing them~ are numerous and varied. The following section describes the general nature of the problems and cites a few examples of approaches taken and lessons learned in the LIA experience.

Of the programs administered byLIA, ESA's Urban Area Study projects have had the greatest problem with producer-user interface, largely because of the size and diversity of the communities they are trying to serve. ESA has recognized this problem and attempted to meet it by investigating various approaches to its solution. design statement for the San Francisco Bay Region Environment and Resources Planning Study (1971), the primary goal of the work was "to develop earth science concepts, products, and procedures which can significantly improve regional planning and development."

The major producer-user interface problems encountered in all the Urban Area Study projects center around: o Identification of key representatives in the user community,

o Determination of the needs to be met, as perceived by the who not only have the greatest interest in and the most to gain from interaction with the producers, but who also have influence among their peers.

user~ and of the information available or that can be produced to assist in meeting them.

Consequently, product demand must

Here, driving forces come into play.

Indeed, according to the program o

• o

These problems may be compounded by users who have little or no knowledge of the earth sciences, by scientists who tend to be overly optimistic as to the applicability of their products, by ineffectual intermediaries, and/or by budgets and plans unequal to the task at hand. In the Urban Area Study projects, all these factors existed in varying degree. TABLE 3.--Land Information and

Establishment and maintenance of effective producer-user communication throughout the project.

Provision for followup educational, advisory, and review services to assure that the user community can make optimal use of the products and information provided. Analysis Program characteristics

When the San Francisco Bay Region Environment and Resources Planning Study was planned in 1969, USGS and Department of Housing and Urban Renewal (HUD) representatives were aware that, so far as land use studies of this magnitude were concerned, they were breaking new ground. Some problems were anticipated, many others were not. The need for working with an intermediary aware of the "politics" of the region was recognized early in the study, and the Association of Bay Area Governments was invited to participate. This liaison proved useful even though the association did not have as much of an influence over its member governments as the scientistshad expected and hoped. Due to initial lack of communication, and misperceptions on the part of user groups as to their own needs and how the USGS products might help meet them, early products were almost exclusively those which the scientists deemed valuable. As it turned out, many of them were. before multidisciplinary user-producer task forces, assigned to specific subject-matter areas, discovered exactly which products would best meet user needs. identified, communi~ation channels were made effective, users achieved a better understanding of their needs for ESI and of the scientists' abilities to satisfy them, and scientists learned which products, set forth in which formats, scales, etc., were most useful.

Evaluations of the project (Arthur D. Little, Inc., 197 5; Kockelman, 197 5, 1976 , 197 9) bear out the importance of these educational and advisory efforts. Kockelman' s inventories (197 5, 1976) of the use of SFBRS products in 91 cities and 8 counties in the Bay area showed that: o All eight counties~ and three-fourths of the cities, had plan-

o Planning applications most often

o About 90 percent of some 87 SFBRS products were used at least This discovery was made only after key role players were

ning staffs who were· familiar with SFBRS products or had made use of them.

hazards studies, elements, general reference, and the preparation and review of environmental impact reports and statements.

once by cities and counties alike; 1 product was used at least 6 7 times for various 'city planning activities; and 9 products were used over 30 times eaeh for various county planning activities. But the project had been underway for several years

But assistance in how to use

Fortunately, some degree of resource flexibility

Universities in the area were encouraged to use

indicated were geologic seismic safety and public safety plan West coast counterpart, had essentially no flexibility with regard to resources available to foster activity in the information transfer area. However, as a result of the conscientious work of the project administrator and the individual project members in producing useful products, the project has had a strong, beneficial influence. for important State legislation in the areas of mineral fuels and construction materials, to encourage the employment of geologists and use of geological consultants at local government levels, and to provide a host of reports and maps that effectively demonstrate the usefulness of earth science products in a rapidly urbanizing area. Despite such positive results, a recent user survey made for the USGS (Downing, 1978) revealed that of the 318 potential users interviewed (local government planners, consulting engineers andgeologists, architects, and university professors, two-thirds of whom were on the project mailing list) 49 did not know of the Urban Corridor Project, over half had not used the maps, and only 10 percent had made extensive use of them. It is evident that, if maximum benefits are to be derived from projects involving large expenditures for the preparation of earth science products for land use planning, funds must be allocated to assure that planners and decisionmakers know about ESI and are able to use it.

Pittsburgh Regional Studies Program. Appalachian Regional Commission (Wissel and others, 1976), details comparable difficulties in achieving effective information transfer to a high percentage of the potential users. clusions on "extensive personal interviews with elected officials from 109 of the 417 municipalities (including the 6 county governments) in the area, and with 44 land use planners who deal with land use questions via either county and municipal planning departments or private consulting firms." links" in the communication process between (1) suppliers and translators; (2) translators and users; and (3) suppliers and users. Regarding category (1), the investigators pointed out that "most planners [translators] who are eventually charged with responsibilities on land use questions do not receive much emphasis on technical training in the geological sciences in their planning curricula." interviewed make requests of the USGS with some frequency, most of them finding the information they obtain to be very useful." In category (2), "great variation was discovered among elected officials [users] concerning perceptions of the seriousness of physical problems in making land use decisions, the technical! ty of information needed in making such decisions, and the value of information on land use." As for the category (3) link, "from the vantage of most elected officials, [it] is almost non-existent

of W!lYS that bear directly on the nature and extent of problems eno

The Colorado Front Range Urban Corridor Project, in contrast to its

Similar conclusions were reached in an evaluation of the USGS Greater

Their findings were described with respect to "those critical

Other LIA projects differed from the Urban Area Studies in a number At least 45 USGS products, apart from those generated by SFRBS, were also used for various city planning ac ti vi ties, and 85 others for county planning activities.

However, "three-fourths of the planners It has helped to set the stage

The study, commissioned by the

The authors based their concountered at the producer-user interface. These projects, though different each from the other, involved producers with similar perceptions of needs to be met, of products that might meet them, and of the means of information transfer. Specific "ultimate-users" of the information in question were more readily identified for these projects, and monetary and other resource commitments from the users were more easily obtained; thus, truly cooperative efforts between the earth science and user communities were more easily achieved. The following examples will serve to illustrate that cooperation, and to point out how producer-user interface problems here differed from those of the Urban Area Study projects.

was initiated in 197 5 to assist coastal States, and representatives of their governmental units at all levels, to prepare for possible onshore impacts of offshore energy developments. This effort involved, first, the gathering of pertinent data, then, its analysis and assemblage in a form suitable for the intended audience, and, finally, the transfer of information, together with instruction in its use, to that audience. further its goal, specifically to meet problems anticipated at the producer-user interface, RALI contracted with two "intermediary" organizations. The New England River Basin Commission (NERBC) was to gather the information and put it in a form suitable for effective transfer to planners and decisionmakers; the American Society of Planning Officials (ASPO) was to plan and run the information transfer workshops. The real possibility of recovering oil and gas off the coast of the New England States, and the potential for onshore support facilities, made the problem a practical one for NERBC. The Commission approached its task of identifying and involvingkey representativesby instituting a regional steering committee of Federal and State officials; by forming a project advisory group, consisting of people active in the fishing industry, environmental groups, port management, banking and commerce, labor, the regional energy industries, and heavy construction; and by establishing working arrangements with the Production Subcommittee of the American Petroleum Institute's Exploration Committee. and the Environmental Protection Agency to plan and prepare for 15 three-day workshops to be held over a 2-year period. A user survey was conducted to identify both the audience for whom the workshops should be designed, and the significant, issues as perceived by the respondents. The governors' offices in the coastal States in question helped designate workshop participants, at all levels of government within the region, who could profit most from the information. A multidisciplinary faculty was chosen, supported at each workshop by area specialists who "spoke the language" of the participants and who had already dealt with major facility siting and development problems. this faculty on the basis of information acquired from preregistration forms. used as the basis for modification of ensuing sessions.

Urban Area Study projects are the size and diversity of the user communities The Onshore Planning for Offshore Oil and Gas Development Project

ASPO worked with RALI project leaders, NERBC,

Workshop responsibilities were assigned by

Postworkshop evaluations, by both participants and faculty, were

The most significant differences between this RALI project and the involved, the duration of the projects, the number and variability of the products provided, and the degree of control established and maintained by the information producers in working with the user community. The SFBRS, largest of the Urban Area Study projects, covered 9 Bay area counties, comprising 91 cities and a total population (in 197 0) of over 5 million. The responsibilities of thedecisionmakers in the area ranged from the granting of permits for homes or subdivisions to the managing of water qual! ty in San Francisco Bay. Over 100 maps and reports were produced in the 6 years of project . operation: some of these were used extensively throughout the region; others received limited local attention. The RALI effort was to transfer information to an audience consisting on the average of 7 5 planners and decisionmakers. In a total of 15 workshops, approximately 1,000 persons from Federal, State, and local government, industry, and special interest groups attended. Each workshop was tailored to different regional issues. Clearly the two projects are comparable only in that problems of communication and cooperation between producers and users are similar. Even so, identification of key role players, definition of the needs to be met, preparation of products usable by the intelligent layman, and effective transfer of the information are equally critical to the success of both types of operation.

The Land Use and Land Cover Mapping Project, administered by the Geography Program, was authorized by the Congress in 197 5 to provide, within 7 or 8 years, land use and land cover maps and associated data for the entire United States. Experience in this program at the producer-user interface differs from that of both the RALI and Urban Area Study programs.

The user community addressed consists of the representatives of those State agencies assigned responsibility to work with USGS scientists in completing graphic coverage of their State and~ in some places, to enter the data into computers through the use of digitization processes.

Re-

sponsibility for the transfer of the information to people at the regional and local government level within the State rests with the State agencies involved.

Much of the planning for this program derived from previous experience of both Geography and EROS~ in association with NASA~ in evaluating potential applications of remotely sensed data obtained from Landsat (formerly ERTS) satellites and high altitude aircraft. In 1970 a large project had been undertaken by the three groups to study the application of such data to a variety of land use planning problems in a part of the Atlantic coastal region, called the Central Atlantic Region Ecological Test Site (CARETS). In the same year~ studies were begun on urban change detection to provide a basis for evaluating land use changes in eight urban areas. A land use classification system for use with remotely sensed data (Anderson, Hardy, and Roach, 197 2; Anderson and others, 1976) was set up and put to use in these and subsequent projects such as those initiated in the Ozark region in 197 2, and in Pittsburgh and Atlanta in 197 4. In addition, user seminars on this system were held in 197 3 in Boston~ Memphis, Denver, and San Francisco. entering the program, Geography personnel and State agency user representatives hold briefing sessions and informal discussions to work out details. However, the need for continuous information and technology transfer was not anticipated at the beginning of the program, and the lack of sufficient resources for adequate briefings, seminars, and workshops during all phases of activity remains a problem. A major reason is the rapidly growing interest in and consequent use of new techniques for digitization and computer analysis of information initially provided on maps. The problem has compounded proportionally as greater numbers of users have access to land use and land cover maps and data but possess minimal knowledge as to its quality, significance, and applicability to their needs.

producer communication, is the rapidly changing technology in the field of land use and land cover mapping. required to achieve uniform national coverage; meanwhile, today' s techniques are rapidly changing andimproving. Production problems of various sorts result because States now coming into the program can avail themselves of methods and formats that were not available to those States where mapping had already been completed.

project are not as numerous as those for the RALI and the Urban Area studies. Thekey users here are known and, though not necessarily expert in remote sensing and mapping techniques, have considerable technical knowledge of scientific methodologies applicable to the measurement of natural systems. to their activities. Furthermore, each States' vested financialinterest in the program reinforce their desire to get as much out of it as possible. Thus, the major problem remains that of accumulating sufficient resources to provide adequate educational training in the use of this particular technology.

was instituted for the purpose of determining the technical and economic feasibility of using Landsat data as an aid in the solution of regional land resource problems in the States of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. In working toward this objective, the three Federal sponsors--the EROS and Geography Programs of the USGS and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) --focused on the attainment of three subsidiary goals: Prior to formalization of a new cooperative agreement with each State

A further complex! ty, which also argues for more formalized user-

Nevertheless, producer-user interface problems for this Geography

The Pacific Northwest Land Resource Inventory Demonstration Project

1. Training of State personnel in the use of remotely sensed
2. User estimation of the applicability of those data to solving A 7- to 8-year period will be

They are also aware of the state of the art relative

data.

his problems. three user States, played a key role in the initiation and implementation of this project. Mapping Program, considerable planning was done prior to project inception. The respective roles of the Federal agencies and a Commission task force were defined; probable needs of potential State agency users for products and training were assessed; and a management plan was prepared. This plan put the task force--working under the direct aegis of the Commission members, i.e., the Governors of the three States--in a strong coordinating position to serve both as a buffer to assure that the Federal agencies did not get involved in problems and decisions in the purview of State and local governments (and vice versa) and as a bridge to effect useful transfer of information between producer and user groups.

State and local government agencies, inviting them to hear project plans and to consider becoming involved in the effort. Approximately a dozen agencies responded and joined the project in the first several months; during the next 3 years, agency membership grew to over 45. While there was no formal effort on the part of the Pacific Northwest Regional Commission or its project task force to select user agencies, the Commission nonetheless established itself as an effective driving force for this project by its monetary commitment and the personal involvement of the commissioners. Furthermore, similar responsibilities were assumed by participating user agencies from the outset. Coupled with the understanding that initiation, justification, and partial support of specific demonstration projects, to be considered for eventual implementation, would also come from these agencies was the assurance that the program

nature of earth science products and their general applicabiity vis-a-vis land use problems; then, to interest the agencies in proposing specific remote sensing projects of potential significance to their programs, and, finally, for proposals considered worthy of continued study and support, to conduct technology training to enable various agency representatives to undertake and accomplish the research objectives. Throughout the 3-year project, Federal agency personnel at the EROS Data Center and NASA's Ames Research Center worked with some 125 representatives of the State and local government user agencies to familiarize them with the possibilities of using remote sensing in land resource management areas, such as forestry, natural resources, agriculture, water resources, fish and wildlife, and urban change.

·resembled and differed from those of other LIA projects. the goals and implementation mechanisms of the Pacific Northwest Study were supported by cooperative funding and the management strengths of the Regional Commission, an organization stronglylinked tothe political hierarchy of the three-State area. possible for the Urban Area Study program. It afforded PNLRID a latitude 3. User evaluation of a statewide or regionwide, user-oriented remote sensing system.

The Pacific Northwest Regional Commi~sion (PNRC), representing the

As with Geography's National Land Use and Land Cover

By way of initiating this project, each commissioner contacted his

would be "user-driven."

Program development was staged, first, to acquaint users with the

PNLRID problems and interactions at the producer-user interface both For example,

Such large-scale commitment was imamounting to (1) agency backup support for the "trainees," without the need for new or additional authorization to assign employees to work in directions not formerly included among agency activities; and (2) a regional atmosphere and approach that encouraged participants to consider and relate specific agency problems to important interstate and intrastate activities. force resulted in procedures for information transfer geared to the capabilities and interests of the users. These included: (1) care in selecting trainees; (2) use of a logical sequence of demonstrations and training steps, supplemented by personal guidance where necessary; (3) provision of a~ple opportunity for direct, continuous interaction between students and faculty; and (4) allowance, in project planning and implementation, for formal feedback and evaluation reports.

Urban Area Studies and Land Use and Land Cover programs in that one of the major problems not anticipated by project sponsors was the unexpectedly great amount of individual attention required to achieve information transfer because of the extreme variability in background experience of the trainees, and the wide diversity of research problems posed by the various agencies.

administered by the EIA Program are probably the most highly structured with respect to producer-user community relationships. The primary purpose of an EIS is to assist decisionmakers at the national level in considering the probable impacts of a proposed development on the environment. These decisionmakers are also responsible for making available to the public "advice and information useful in restoring, maintaining, and enhancing the quality of the environment" (the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Sec. 102(f)). of Management and Budget circulars, Federal laws, and guidelines issued by the administering agencies specifically spell out the desirable or required participation of State and local agencies and the public in environmental impact matters.

and user ranged from conversations in the task force office to formal public hearings. of EIS progress through press releases~ talks and meetings with local, regional, Following its completion in April 1976 (1 1/2 years after project initiation), four sets of hearings were held to allow public response to the draft EIS. of this input was considered in preparing the final EIS.

information in an environmental impact statement must be set forth in form and language intelligible to the layman. projects, however, the producers of an EIS have little need to identify On the other side of the coin, the PNLRID Project resembles the

Of all the LIA projects, the environmental impact statements (EIS)

During preparation of the Idaho Phosphate EIS, contact between producer

Idaho Phosphate resembles every other LIA effort in that the scientific In addition, the control exercised by the Commission task

In addition, numerous Executive Orders, Office

The task force leader kept interested parties abreast

and statewide organizations, and radio and TV appearances.

In addition, 90 sets of written comments were received. All

Unlike the other LIA key representatives in the user community or to make potential users aware of the possible import of the EIS. Because EIS' s typically consider issues of regional significance, most of the users are well informed, at least with respect to their own particular areas of concern.

tively transferring information from producers to users. Experience has proved that no single approach to this interface suffices for every situation. Briefings, workshops, seminars, advisory committees, task forces, telephone calls, press releases, one-to-one user-producer conversations: all have their place. For whatever project, no matter what communication technique or combination of techniques is to be used, interaction between producer and user must be planned in advance and budgeted for as a continuous, essential part of the program that sometimes prevails long after formal termina tio_n of the project.

different way, pointing out that: need to be aware that providing accurate and well interpreted ESI for use in the planning process is only a first step. will influence actual decisions requires public understanding of the issues. * * *. The essential point, however, is the need to foster an institutional, legal, and political climate favorable to full and effective interplay between planners and earth scientists on the one hand and professionals and public decisionmakers on the· other." Director for Environmental Resources of the Council of State Governments (1976a, p. vii), put it more succinctly: "The largest problem, however, may be a lack of simple communication among users and producers."

U.S. Geological Survey have just begun to meet the challenge of providing earth science information to the Nation's planners and decisionmakers. Projects throughout the country have exposed many problems and provided some solutions. More importantly, they have illustrated the difficulties of communication between the producers and the users of earth science information. These projects indicate that the entire earth science community must overcome two major obstacles in attempting to move from isolated demonstrations to nationwide application of earth science information.

science information must be identified, and those needs must be continuously reassessed. scientists and the ever-changing constituency of users in those areas of need must be established and pursued.

in the Nation where earth science information is urgently needed--LIA experience has shown that attention should be directed toward: In summary, these LIA projects exemplify the difficulties of effec-

Spangle and others (1976, p. 26) expressed the matter in a slightly "Both the earth scientist and planner

To assure that ESI

H. Milton Patton, Associate

CONCLUSIONS

The programs of the Land Information and Analysis Office of the

First, areas throughout the Nation which have an urgent need for earth

Second, effective working relationships between the earth

To successfully negotiate the first obstacle--identifying the areas Judicious use of criteria to define such critical areas throughout the Nation would reveal hundreds of high priority "hot spots" urgently in need of the application of earth science information to wise land resource decisionmaking. local, regional, and State areas who must bear the responsibility for cooling these "hot spots" should be the primary beneficiaries of massive efforts by American earth scientists to provide vital information and assistance in its use.

To successfully overcome the second obstacle--the establishment and maintenance of a strong working relationship between producers and users-- LIA has found that two major efforts are requisite:

In conclusion, LIA experience suggests that, if earth science information is to be applied nationwide to the solution of land resource problems, the entire earth science community must mobilize to achieve what LIA has attempted to do with its projects: o

o Areas where the intensified use or abuse of the land requires immediate corrective actions (e.g., areas subject to the deleterious effects of waste disposal sites).

Areas characterized by rapid change and the accompanying conflicts of interest (e.g., urbanizing regions).

Areas where the characteristics of the land, the subsurface, the water, and the environment restrict land use (e.g., mountain slopes, flood plains, earthquake zones, shrink-swell clays, etc.).

Areas of particular geographic, political, environmental, or resource significance (e.g., river basins, wilderness areas, coal regions, coastal zones, alluvial valley floors, prime agricultural lands, etc.).

Areas which can be effectively evaluated by new and improved technology (e.g., methods of change detection and monitoring by remote sensing).

The citizens, planners, and decisionmakers in

Establishing and maintaining a clear understanding of the current "real world" value of the scientific information.

Planning and budgeting for explicit activities (task forces, workshops, public relation programs, technique demonstrations~ etc.) which will result in strong producer-user relationships before, during, and after a project. Wherever possible, such planning should include the effective use of influential intermediaries to assist in establishing and maintaining the critical communication links between the earth science producers and the users.

Create nationwide awareness of earth science information needs and uses. In striving toward these objectives, many approaches . are needed; some will succeed better than others. lishing intimate working relations by every possible means of communication and interaction between the two "communities" involved--the earth scientists and the land resource planners and decisionmakers throughout the Nation. To expand Donald Woolfe' s position, don't just "take a planner to lunch," share an office with him!

Anderson, J. R., Hardy, E. E., Roach, J. T., 1972, A land-use classification system for use with remote sensor data: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 6 71, 16 p.

Anderson, J. R., Hardy, E. E., Roach, J. T., Witmer, R. E., 1976, A land use and land cover classification system for use with remote sensor data:

Arthur D. Little, Inc., 197 5, An evaluation of the San Francisco Bay Region Environment and Resources Planning Study, Report to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research:

Council of State Governments, 1976a, Natural resource data needs recommendations: 25 P•

1976b, State growth management:

the Office of Community Planning and Development, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, May 1976.

Downing, T.E., 1978, Use of the Front Range Urban Corridor studies, Final project report to the U.S. Geological Survey, DOl 14-08-001-G-461: Boulder, Colo., University of Colorado, Institute of Behavorial Science, 89 p. , 7 appendixes.

Kockelman, W. J., 197 5, Use of USGS earth science products by city planning agencies in the San Francisco Bay region, California: Survey Open-File Report 75-276, 110 p.

1976, Use of USGS earth-science products by county planning agencies in the San Francisco Bay region, California: Open-File Report 76-547, 186 p. o Provide specialized, technical information in a form and lan-

o Engage in the educational, advisory, and review services nec-

u.s. Geological Survey Professional Paper 964, 28 p.

114 p. guage understandable to the intelligent citizen.

essary to assist the public and its representatives in making effective use of that information.

However, all will require estab-

REFERENCES CITED

Lexington, Ky.; Council of State Governments, RM-57 4,

Prepared under the direction of

U.S. Geological 197 9, Use of U.S. Geological Survey earth-related products by selected

regional agencies in the San Francisco Bay region, California: U.S.

Geological Survey Open-File Report 79-221, 173 p.

Robinson, G. D., and Spieker, A.M., eds., 1978, "Nature to be commanded ••• ,"

Earth science maps applied to land and water management: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 950, 95 p.

San Francisco Bay Region Environment and Resources Planning Study, 1971, Program design: U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, and U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Research and Technology, 123 p.

Spangle, William, and Associates, Leighton, F. Beach, and Associates, and Baxter, McDonald, and Company, 1976 , Earth-science information in land-use planning--Guidelines for earth scientists and planners: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 721, 28 p.

Spicer, B. E., Braud, D. G., Bordelon, J. M., 1977, States' interest in land use: Soil Conservation Society of America, Special Publication No. 22, p. 405-411.

Wissel, P., O'Connor, R., Cigler, B., 1976, The use of geological information in the Greater Pittsburgh area: Pennsylvania State University, Center for the Study of Environmental Policy, Appalachian Regional Commission Report ARC 7 4-19-256 4, 26 4 p.

Woolfe, D. A., 1978, A planner's view: Geotimes, vol. 23, no. 3, p. 19 •

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