Structural Biochemistry, Genome Analysis, Sequenced Genomes

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Due to modern techniques of DNA analysis, many genomes have been sequenced and analyzed. A famous example is the human genome through the Human Genome Project.

Human Genome Project

The human genome project was an international scientific research effort to fully map out the human genome. This project was started by James D. Watson at the US Institute of Health, but research centers worked on the project all over the world; such as France, Germany, Japan, China, the United Kingdom, and India. So far about 92.3% of the genome has been sequenced, but its difficult to determine due to non-coding sequences of DNA or "junk" DNA.

The genome project uncovered some key findings such as the genome of the human race is 99.9% alike.

Homology

Sequencing genomes allow scientists to identify homologous proteins and establish evolutionary relationships. Furthermore if a newly discovered protein is homologous to a known protein, through homology scientists can make an educated guess on how the new protein functions.

The Impact of Sequencing on Medicine

The ability to quickly sequence the human genome in the future may have significant impacts on medicine. Knowledge about genes and an individual's DNA have already given scientists a way to predict the likelihood of certain diseases among individuals. This also allows one to analyze the chromosomal structure, the effects of evolution upon the genome, and protein structures and functions. In the future, gene therapy, genomic medicine, and preventative treatments may reduce the likelihood of disease and allow manufacturers to tailor drugs to specific individuals.

Eukaryotes are organisms containing cells that enclose complex organelles within a well-defined cell membrane. The defining characteristic that sets Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes apart is Eukaryotes' nucleus, or nuclear envelope, in which an organism's genetic information is contained.

The first eukaryotic genome to be sequenced is that of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) in 1996, and it is commonly known as brewer's yeast. S. cerevisiae is the most useful type of yeast due to its utility in baking and brewing, so it is the most studied eukaryotic model organisms in molecular and cell biology, similar to **E. coli'**s role in the study of prokayortic organisms. Many proteins that are important to humans are studied by examining their homologs in yeasts. For example, signaling proteins and protein-processing enzymes are all discovered through the help of yeast genome.

Other fully sequenced organisms include: roundworm, fruitfly, pufferfish (first vertebrate to be sequenced after humans), and Arabidopsis thaliana.

The tables from below are taken from Wikipedia's list of sequenced eukaryotic genomes.

Protists

Chromista

The Chromista are a group of protists that contains the algal phyla Heterokontophyta, Haptophyta and Cryptophyta. Members of this group are mostly studied for evolutionary interest.

Organism	Type	Relevance	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Guillardia theta	Cryptomonad	Model organism	0.551 Mb ( nucleomorph genome only)	464 [ 1 ]	Canadian Institute of Advanced Research, Philipps-University Marburg and the University of British Columbia	2001 [ 1 ]
Thalassiosira pseudonana Strain:CCMP 1335	Diatom		2.5 Mb	11,242 [ 2 ]	Joint Genome Institute and the University of Washington	2004 [ 2 ]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum Strain: CCAP1055/1	Diatom		27.4 Mb	10,402	Joint Genome Institute	2008 [ 3 ]

Alveolata

Alveolata are a group of protists which includes the Ciliophora, Apicomplexa and
Dinoflagellata. Members of this group are of particular interest to science as the cause of serious human and livestock diseases.

Organism	Type	Relevance	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Babesia bovis	Parasitic protozoan	Cattle pathogen	8.2 Mb	3,671		2007 [ 4 ]
Cryptosporidium hominis Strain:TU502	Parasitic protozoan	Human pathogen	10.4 Mb	3,994 [ 5 ]	Virginia Commonwealth University	2004 [ 5 ]
Cryptosporidium parvum C- or genotype 2 isolate	Parasitic protozoan	Human pathogen	16.5 Mb	3,807 [ 6 ]	UCSF and University of Minnesota	2004 [ 6 ]
Paramecium tetraurelia	Ciliate	Model organism	72 Mb	39,642 [ 7 ]	Genoscope	2006 [ 7 ]
Plasmodium falciparum Clone:3D7	Parasitic protozoan	Human pathogen ( malaria )	22.9 Mb	5,268 [ 8 ]	Malaria Genome Project Consortium	2002 [ 8 ]
Plasmodium knowlesi	Parasitic protozoan	Primate pathogen (malaria)	23.5 Mb	5,188 [ 9 ]		2008 [ 9 ]
Plasmodium vivax	Parasitic protozoan	Human pathogen (malaria)	26.8 Mb	5,433 [ 10 ]		2008 [ 10 ]
Plasmodium yoelii yoelii Strain:17XNL	Parasitic protozoan	Rodent pathogen (malaria)	23.1 Mb	5,878 [ 11 ]	TIGR and NMRC	2002 [ 11 ]
Tetrahymena thermophila	Ciliate	Model organism	104 Mb	27,000 [ 12 ]		2006 [ 12 ]
Theileria parva Strain:Muguga	Parasitic protozoan	Cattle pathogen ( African east coast fever )	8.3 Mb	4,035 [ 13 ]	TIGR and the International Livestock Research Institute	2005 [ 13 ]
Theileria annulata Ankara clone C9	Parasitic protozoan	Cattle pathogen	8.3 Mb	3,792	Sanger	2005 [ 14 ]

Excavata

Excavata is a group of related free living and symbiotic protists; it includes the Metamonada, Loukozoa, Euglenozoa and Percolozoa. They are researched for their role in human disease.

Organism	Type	Relevance	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Leishmania major Strain:Friedlin	Parasitic protozoan	Human pathogen	32.8 Mb	8,272 [ 15 ]	Sanger Institute	2005 [ 15 ]
Giardia lamblia	Parasitic protozoan	Human pathogen	11.7 Mb	6,470 [ 16 ]		2007 [ 16 ]
Trichomonas vaginalis	Parasitic protozoan	Human pathogen ( Trichomoniasis )	160 Mb	59,681 [ 17 ]	TIGR	2007 [ 17 ]
Trypanosoma brucei Strain:TREU927/4 GUTat10.1	Parasitic protozoan	Human pathogen ( Sleeping sickness )	26 Mb	9,068 [ 18 ]	Sanger Institute and TIGR	2005 [ 18 ]
Trypanosoma cruzi Strain:CL Brener TC3	Parasitic protozoan	Human pathogen ( Chagas disease )	34 Mb	22,570 [ 19 ]	TIGR, Seattle Biomedical Research Institute and Uppsala University	2005 [ 19 ]

Amoebozoa

Amoebozoa are a group of motile amoeboid protists, members of this group move or feed by means of temporary projections, called pseudopods. The best known member of this group is the slime mold which has been studied for centuries; other members include the Archamoebae, Tubulinea and Flabellinea. Some Amoeboza cause disease.

Organism	Type	Relevance	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Dictyostelium discoideum Strain:AX4	Slime mold	Model organism	34 Mb	12,500 [ 20 ]	Consortium from University of Cologne, Baylor College of Medicine and the Sanger Centre	2005 [ 20 ]
Entamoeba histolytica HM1:IMSS	Parasitic protozoan	Human pathogen ( amoebic dysentery )	23.8 Mb	9,938 [ 21 ]	TIGR, Sanger Institute and the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine	2005 [ 21 ]

Plants

Higher plants

Organism	Type	Relevance	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Arabidopsis thaliana Ecotype:Columbia	Wild mustard	Model plant	120 Mb	25,498 [ 22 ]	Arabidopsis Genome Initiative [ 23 ]	2000 [ 22 ]
Brassica napus	Rapeseed	Oil plant	1,100 Mb		Bayer CropScience	2009 [ 24 ]
Oryza sativa ssp indica	Rice	Crop and model organism	420 Mb	32-50,000 [ 25 ]	Beijing Genomics Institute, Zhejiang University and the Chinese Academy of Sciences	2002 [ 25 ]
Oryza sativa ssp japonica	Rice	Crop and model organism	466 Mb	46,022-55,615 [ 26 ]	Syngenta and Myriad Genetics	2002 [ 26 ]
Ostreococcus tauri	Green alga	Simple eukaryote	12.6 Mb		Laboratoire Arago	2006 [ 27 ]

early diverging land plant | 500 Mb | 39,458 [ 28 ] | US Department of Energy Office of Science Joint Genome Institute | 2008 [ 28 ] |
| Populus trichocarpa | Balsam poplar or Black Cottonwood | Carbon sequestration, model tree, commercial use (timber), and comparison to A. thaliana | 550 Mb | 45,555 [ 29 ] | The International Poplar Genome Consortium | 2006 [ 29 ] |
| Vitis vinifera | Grapevine PN40024 | Fruit crop | 490 Mb [ 30 ] | 30,434 [ 30 ] | The French-Italian Public Consortium for Grapevine Genome Characterization | 2007 [ 30 ] |
| Zea mays ssp mays | Corn (maize) | Fruit crop | 2,800 Mb | 50,000-60,000 | NSF | 2008 [ 31 ] |

Algae

Organism	Type	Relevance	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Cyanidioschyzon merolae Strain:10D	Red alga	Simple eukaryote	16.5 Mb	5,331 [ 32 ]	University of Tokyo, Rikkyo University, Saitama University and Kumamoto University	2004 [ 32 ]
Thalassiosira pseudonoana [ 33 ]	Heterokont
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii [ 34 ]		Model organism				2007 [ 34 ]
Ostreococcus tauri [ 33 ]	Chlorophyte

Fungi

Organism	Type	Relevance	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Ashbya gossypii Strain:ATCC 10895	Fungus	Plant pathogen	9.2 Mb	4,718 [ 35 ]	SyngentaAG and University of Basel	2004 [ 35 ]
Aspergillus fumigatus Strain:Af293	Fungus	Human pathogen	29.4 Mb	9,926 [ 36 ]	Sanger Institute , University of Manchester , TIGR , Institut Pasteur, Nagasaki University, University of Salamanca and OpGen	2005 [ 36 ]
Aspergillus nidulans Strain:FGSC A4	Fungus	Model organism	30 Mb	9,500 [ 37 ]		2005 [ 37 ]
Aspergillus niger Strain:CBS 513.88	Fungus	Biotechnology - fermentation	33.9 Mb	14,165 [ 38 ]		2007 [ 38 ]
Aspergillus oryzae Strain:RIB40	Fungus	Used to ferment soy	37 Mb	12,074 [ 39 ]	National Institute of Technology and Evaluation	2005 [ 39 ]
Candida glabrata Strain:CBS138	Fungus	Human pathogen	12.3 Mb	5,283 [ 40 ]	Génolevures Consortium [ 41 ]	2004 [ 40 ]
Cryptococcus (Filobasidiella) neoformans JEC21	Fungus	Human pathogen	20 Mb	6,500 [ 42 ]	TIGR and Stanford University	2005 [ 42 ]
Debaryomyces hansenii Strain:CBS767	Yeast	Cheese ripening	12.2 Mb	6,906 [ 40 ]	Génolevures Consortium	2004 [ 40 ]
Encephalitozoon cuniculi	Microsporidium	Human pathogen	2.9 Mb	1,997 [ 43 ]	Genoscope and Université Blaise Pascal	2001 [ 43 ]
Kluyveromyces lactis Strain:CLIB210	Yeast		10-12 Mb	5,329 [ 40 ]	Génolevures Consortium	2004 [ 40 ]
Magnaporthe grisea	Fungus	Plant pathogen	37.8 Mb	11,109 [ 44 ]		2005 [ 44 ]
Neurospora crassa	Fungus	Model eukaryote	40 Mb	10,082 [ 37 ]	Broad Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, University of Kentucky, and the University of Kansas	2003 [ 37 ]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Strain:S288C	Baker's yeast	Model eukaryote	12.1 Mb	6,294 [ 45 ]	International Collaboration for the Yeast Genome Sequencing [ 46 ]	1996 [ 45 ]
Schizosaccharomyces pombe Strain:972h	Yeast	Model eukaryote	14 Mb	4,824 [ 47 ]	Sanger Institute and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory	2002 [ 47 ]
Yarrowia lipolytica Strain:CLIB99	Yeast	Industrial uses	20 Mb	6,703 [ 40 ]	Génolevures Consortium	2004 [ 40 ]

Animals

Mammals

Organism	Type	Shotgun Coverage	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Bos taurus	Cow	6*	3.0 Gb [ 48 ] [ 49 ]	22000 [ 50 ]	Cattle Genome Sequencing International Consortium	2009
Canis lupus familiaris	Dog	7.6*	2.4 Gb [ 51 ]	19,300 [ 51 ]	Broad Institute and Agencourt Bioscience	2005 [ 51 ]
Cavia porcellus	Guinea Pig	2*	3.4 Gb		The Genome Sequencing Platform , The Genome Assembly Team [ 49 ]
Dasypus novemcinctus	Nine-banded Armadillo	2* [ 52 ]	3.0 Gb		Broad Institute [ 49 ]
Echinops telfairi	Hedgehog-Tenrec	2* [ 52 ]			Broad Institute
Equus caballus	Horse	6.8*	2.1 Gb [ 49 ]		Broad Institute et al. [ 49 ]	2007 [ 53 ]
Erinaceus europaeus	Western European Hedgehog	2* [ 52 ]			Broad Institute
Felis catus	Cat	2*	3 Gb	20,285	The Genome Sequencing Platform, The Genome Assembly Team [ 49 ]	2007 [ 54 ]
Homo sapiens	Human		3.2 Gb [ 55 ]	25,000 [ 55 ]	Human Genome Project Consortium and Celera Genomics	Draft 2001 [ 56 ] [ 57 ] Complete 2006 [ 58 ]
Loxodonta africana	African Elephant	2* [ 52 ]	3 Gb		Broad Institute
Macaca mulatta	Rhesus Macaque	6*			Macaque Genome Sequencing Consortium [ 49 ]
Microcebus murinus	Gray Mouse Lemur	2* [ 52 ]			The Genome Sequencing Platform, The Genome Assembly Team [ 49 ]
Monodelphis domestica	Gray Short-tailed Opossum		3.5 Gb	18 - 20,000	Broad Institute et al.	2007 [ 49 ] [ 59 ]
Mus musculus Strain: C57BL/6J	Mouse		2.5 Gb	24,174 [ 60 ]	International Collaboration for the Mouse Genome Sequencing [ 61 ]	2002 [ 60 ]
Myotis lucifugus	Little Brown Bat	2* [ 49 ]			Broad Institute
Ochotona princeps	American Pika	2* [ 52 ]			Broad Institute
Ornithorhynchus anatinus [ 62 ]	Platypus	6* [ 49 ]			Washington University
Oryctolagus cuniculus	Rabbit	2* [ 52 ]	2.5 Gb		Broad Institute et al. [ 49 ]
Otolemur garnettii	Small-eared Galago, or Bushbaby	2* [ 52 ]			Broad Institute
Pan troglodytes	Chimpanzee	6* [ 49 ]	3.1 Gb		Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium	2005 [ 63 ]
Pongo pygmaeus	Orangutan		3.0 Gb		Institute for Molecular Biotechnology [ 49 ]
Rattus norvegicus	Rat	1.8* or better	2.8 Gb [ 49 ]	21,166 [ 64 ]	Rat Genome Sequencing Project Consortium	2004 [ 64 ]
Sorex araneus	European Shrew	2* [ 52 ]	3.0 Gb [ 49 ]		The Genome Sequencing Platform, The Genome Assembly Team [ 49 ]
Spermophilus tridecemlineatus	Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel	2*			The Genome Sequencing Platform, The Genome Assembly Team [ 49 ]
Tupaia belangeri	Northern Tree Shrew	2*			Broad Institute [ 49 ]

Insects

Organism	Type	Relevance	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Anopheles gambiae Strain: PEST	Mosquito	Vector of malaria	278 Mb	13,683 [ 65 ]	Celera Genomics and Genoscope	2002 [ 65 ]
Apis mellifera	Honey bee	Model for eusocial behavior	1800 Mb	10,157 [ 66 ]	The Honeybee Genome Sequencing Consortium	2006 [ 66 ]
Bombyx mori Strain:p50T	Moth (domestic silk worm)	Silk production	530 Mb		University of Tokyo and National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences	2004 [ 67 ]
Drosophila melanogaster	Fruit fly	Model animal	165 Mb	13,600 [ 68 ]	Celera, UC Berkeley, Baylor College of Medicine, European DGP	2000 [ 68 ]

Nematodes

Organism	Type	Relevance	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Caenorhabditis briggsae	Nematode worm	For comparison with C. elegans	104 Mb	19,500 [ 69 ]	Washington University, Sanger Institute and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory	2003 [ 69 ]
Caenorhabditis elegans Strain:Bristol N2	Nematode worm	Model animal	100 Mb	19,000 [ 70 ]	Washington University and the Sanger Institute	1998 [ 70 ]
Meloidogyne hapla	Northern root-knot nematode	Vegetable pathogen	54 Mb	14,420 [ 71 ]		2008 [ 71 ]
Meloidogyne incognita	Southern root-knot nematode	Plant pathogen	86 Mb	19,212 [ 72 ]	INRA , Genoscope and International M.incognita Genome Consortium [ 73 ]	2008 [ 72 ]

Genome Sequencing Center, Washington University School of Medicine | 2008 [ 74 ] |

Other animals

Organism	Type	Relevance	Genome size	Number of genes predicted	Organization	Year of completion
Ciona intestinalis	Tunicate	Simple chordate	116.7 Mb	16,000 [ 75 ]	Joint Genome Institute	2003 [ 75 ]
Ciona savignyi	Tunicate		174 Mb		Broad Institute	2007 [ 76 ]
Gallus gallus	Chicken		1000 Mb	20-23,000 [ 77 ]	International Chicken Genome Sequencing Consortium	2004 [ 77 ]
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus	Sea urchin	Model eukaryote	814 Mb	23,300 [ 78 ]	Sea Urchin Genome Sequencing Consortium	2006 [ 78 ]
Takifugu rubripes	Puffer fish	Vertebrate with small genome	390 Mb	22-29,000 [ 79 ]	International Fugu Genome Consortium [ 80 ]	2002 [ 81 ]
Tetraodon nigroviridis	Puffer fish	Vertebrate with compact genome	340 Mb [ 82 ]	22,400 [ 82 ]	Genoscope and the Broad Institute	2004 [ 82 ]

Sequenced Bacterial Genomes

There are some techniques which are improving to be fast and high volume DNA sequencing like fluorescent dideoxynucleotide chain terminators, "shot gun" method etc. The bacterial genome of Haemophilus influenza wa determined in 1995 with a "short gun" method. The genomic DNA is cut randomly into fragments and then the computer programs brings out the whole sequence by matching the overlapping regions between these fragments. The H. influenzae genome consists of 1,830,137 base pairs and encodes approximately 1740 proteins. With these similar approaches, more than 100 bacterial and archaeal species including key model of organisms such as E.coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Archaeoglobus fulgidus, as well as pathogenic organisms such as Yersina pestis (causing bubonic plague) and Bacillus anthracis (anthrax).1

References

Berg, Jeremy M. 2007. Biochemistry. Sixth Ed. New York: W.H. Freeman. 68-69, 78. 2. Voet, Voet, Pratt (2004). - Fundamentals of Biochemistry

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↑ Arabidopsis Genome Initiative
↑ http://www.research-in-germany.de/coremedia/generator/dachportal/en/07__News_20and_20Events/VDITZ_20-_20News_26Events/Archiv/2009-10-25_2C_20Full_20oilseed_20rape_20genome_20deciphered,sourcePageId=34814.html
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↑ First Draft Of Corn Genome Completed
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↑ About Génolevures
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↑ International Collaboration for the Yeast Genome Sequencing
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↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s PubMed Home
↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8014598.stm Cow genome 'to transform farming'
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↑ a b c d e f g h i Mammalian Genome Project - Broad
↑ Horse Genome Assembled, February 7, 2007 News Release - National Institutes of Health (NIH)
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↑ International Collaboration for the Mouse Genome Sequencing
↑ Whole Genome Shotgun sequencing project list
↑ Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium. (2005). "Initial sequence of the chimpanzee genome and comparison with the human genome". Nature. 437 (7055): 69–87. doi:10.1038/nature04072. PMID 16136131. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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↑ a b Honeybee Genome Sequencing Consortium. (2006). "Insights into social insects from the genome of the honeybee Apis mellifera". Nature. 443 (7114): 931–49. doi:10.1038/nature05260. PMC 2048586. PMID 17073008. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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↑ a b C. elegans Sequencing Consortium. (1998). "Genome sequence of the nematode C. elegans: a platform for investigating biology". Science (journal). 282 (5396): 2012–8. PMID 9851916. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
↑ a b Charles Opperman, David McK. Bird, Mark Burke, Jonathan Cohn, John Cromer, Steve Diener, Jim Gajan, Steve Graham, T. D. Houfek, Jennifer Schaff, Reenah Schaffer, Elizabeth Scholl, Eric Windham, Bryon R. Sosinski, Valerie M. Williamson, Qingli Liu, Varghese P. Thomas, Dan S. Rokhsar, Therese Mitros (2008). "Sequence and Genetic Map of Meloidogyne hapla: A Compact Nematode Genome for Plant Parasitism". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105: 14802. doi:10.1073/pnas.0805946105. PMID 18809916.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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↑ International M.incognita Genome Consortium
↑ a b Christoph Dieterich, Sandra W Clifton, Lisa N Schuster, Asif Chinwalla, Kimberly Delehaunty, Iris Dinkelacker, Lucinda Fulton, Robert Fulton, Jennifer Godfrey, Pat Minx, Makedonka Mitreva, Waltraud Roeseler, Huiyu Tian, Hanh Witte, Shiaw-Pyng Yang, Richard K Wilson & Ralf J Sommer (2008). "The Pristionchus pacificus genome provides a unique perspective on nematode lifestyle and parasitism". Nature Genetics. 40: 1193. doi:10.1038/ng.227. PMID 17095691. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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↑ Small KS, Brudno M, Hill MM, Sidow A (2007). "A haplome alignment and reference sequence of the highly polymorphic Ciona savignyi genome". Genome Biol. 8 (3): R41. doi:10.1186/gb-2007-8-3-r41. PMC 1868934. PMID 17374142.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
↑ a b International Chicken Genome Sequencing Consortium. (2004). "Sequence and comparative analysis of the chicken genome provide unique perspectives on vertebrate evolution". Nature. 432 (7018): 695–716. doi:10.1038/nature03154. PMID 15592404. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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↑ International Fugu Genome Consortium. Forth Genome Assembly
↑ International Fugu Genome Consortium
↑ Aparicio S, Chapman J, Stupka E; et al. (2002). "Whole-genome shotgun assembly and analysis of the genome of Fugu rubripes". Science (journal). 297 (5585): 1301–10. doi:10.1126/science.1072104. PMID 12142439. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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